English the Most Amazing Subject

English Class 8 Task 1 Reading exercise Read the novel, ‘The Boy in The Striped Pyjamas’ by John Boyne; Chapters 1- 4 Focus on: †¢ What themes are explored in the first four chapters? †¢ The relationship between Bruno and Maria. Task 2 Speaking and Listening Prepare a 2 minute talk to your class about something that really irritates you. It does not necessarily require a very formal language. Follow the steps below: 1. Decide on a topic. It’s always best to talk about things you actually know about and to express feelings you really have. . Structure your talk. It may be brief, but it still requires: †¢ An opening in which you quickly grab the audience’s attention and let them know what you’re going to talk about. †¢ A main body in which you give a couple of reasons or ideas to support your point. †¢ A conclusion in which you leave the listeners with a memorable phrase. Task 3 Grammar Practice adverbs and adjectives using the following websites: †¢ http://www. schoolexpress. com/fws/cat. php? id=2287 †¢ http://sites. google. com/site/jostombaugh/adjectivesadverbs Task 4 Spelling Learn the spellings of the following words: 1. Autumn 2. Knowledge 3. Development 4. Embarrass 5. Definite 6. Audible 7. Concentration 8. Assessment 9. Accommodation 10. Diamond 11. Beginning 12. Height 13. Queue 14. Business 15. Beneath 16. Tomorrow 17. Jealous 18. Questionnaire 19. Issue 20. Atmosphere 21. Continuous 22. Marriage 23. Imaginary 24. Improvise 25. Miscellaneous 26. Happened 27. Process 28. February 29. Forty 30. Separate 31. Straight 32. Success 33. Reference 34. Technique 35. Conscience 36. Murmur 37. Diary 38. Design 39. Column 40. Weird 41. Listening 42. Montague 43. Mantua 44. Capulet 45. Shakespeare 46. Idolatry 47. Adversaries 48. Nuptial 49. Forfeit 50. Foreshadowing 51. Shroud 52. Apothecary 53. Tybalt 54. Abram 55. Balthasar 56. Rosaline 57. Cemetery 58. Epitaph 59. Exile 60. Enmity ———————– NOTE: †¢ Students will be assessed on the given tasks when they return to school. †¢ Any queries regarding these tasks should be addressed to: [email  protected] com

Intelligence Led-Policing Essay

The police institution has undergone major changes aimed at rebuilding its public. These changes date back to aggressive cops to the modern day police whose are guided by the rule of law (Ratcliffe, 2003, p 3). Introduced in the late 20th century, community policing focused on restoration of police legitimacy through community participation. It aimed at re-connecting the police institution to the public (Ratcliffe, 2003, p 4). Various researches indicate that it failed to provide measurable results. Consequently other models including problem oriented policing, Compstat and most recently, intelligence based policing (ILP) have emerged. Problem oriented policing involves use of statistical trends in identification of areas of interest. Compstat on the other hand focuses on empowerment of middle level officers to rapidly respond to crime. Basically it involves crime mapping, viewing and discussion. The most recent, ILP is an initiative at making the police smarter. It is founded on the use of criminal intelligence by the police in fighting crime (Ratcliffe, 2003, p 6). Emerging as a rare and unique initiative that attempts at understanding criminal environments and thus predict its occurrence and trends, the initiative is increasingly gaining popularity. Unlike the other models, ILP does not favor the popular reactive and investigate approaches in fighting crime but rather focuses on early identification hence prevention (Ratcliffe, 2003, p 6). It ensures that police actions are based on intelligence rather than intuition. ILP emerges as an alternative in organizational restructuring towards crime eradication. It is a result of changing crime faces and the transnational crime emergence alongside globalization, electronic financial transactions and internet in addition to police demand gap and failures of the existing policing models (Ratcliffe, 2003, p 6). The major similarity of this model to the previous models is the cause. Each aims to reduce crime marginal through either prevention or reactionary techniques. However, the approaches the take differ enormously. While the earlier models focused on either reacting to crime or cause identification, this model focuses on understanding the crime and the criminal mind as the basis for criminal fight.

What Are the Principle Strengths and Weaknesses of Nomothetic and Idiographic Approaches to Personality? Illustrate You Answer with at Least One Theory Associated with Each Approach.

This essay discusses the major strengths and weaknesses of nomothetic and idiographic approaches to personality with the help of associated theories. Personality is defined as the psycho-physcial traits and mechanisms within an individual, influencing their interactions and adaptability to the ‘environment’. Nomothetic and idiographic approaches are two different methods used to provide an insight into and determine the personalities of people. While both approaches are meant to further ones understanding of personality in different situations, there are significant differences as well as advantages and disadvantages for, in addition to, each method as this essay will highlight. Falk (1956) defines the nomothetic approach as a method to illuminate the laws and principles that define behaviors of a populace by interpreting general patterns which emerge, and the idiographic approach as an in-depth exploration of a subject where the understanding achieved is unique and personalized to the individual. The nomothetic approach takes on the ‘history repeats itself’ attitude as expressed by Skinner’s radical behaviorism theory divulged by his experiments on rats, pigeons etc. (Smith and Woodward, 1996). The nomothetic approach’s greatest strength lies in its ability to distinguish certain trait behaviors of a population or community. This is efficent in determining an effective solution for individuals with identical behavior patterns based on the trait theory of personality. Cattell’s (1946) 16PF trait theories, large scale studies recorded as a score on a dimension is an example of nomothetic investigation of human personality by which an individual’s personality is able to be described and generalized, as well as group behavior of same scoring individuals predicted. Research such as Milgram’s experiment and the I. Q. test suggest nomothetic notions hold true for certain behavioral principals and can be used to a certain extent to generalize groups of people. The ‘Big 5’ theory in collaboration with nomothetic data is considered satisfactory to illustrate the features of personality. This method relies heavily on trait theories of personality to predict and establish behavioral personalities for a populace. On the other hand classification of a particular populace may not hold true for a particular individual due to specific individual traits and experiences suggests Gordon Allport (Nicholson, 2000). He stated that standardized testing would not be able to examine a greater part of an individual’s personality traits thus it required focused and customized study and observation. While the nomothetic approach is relatively accurate to determine personality of general communities, it is shown to only propose surface principle behavior, not an accurate personality detail of a person. Moreover a bulky sample has to be chosen accurately to determine emerging patterns of behavior; classification might not be precise for all the people in that particular generalization. Another evident disadvantage is the classification of a person or people based on their result such as I. Q. which is show in certain situations to create bias among the society they are in. The idiographic approach is highly focused on an individual under investigation and is mostly qualitative based as opposed to the quantitative nomothetic way. It is largely based on Freud’s theories of consciousness, that each person has an I,D. , ego and super ego and that it is unique to that particular individual. The study is comprehensive and long term, highlighting a complete understanding of the subject such as Freud’s explicit and long term clinical studies of his patients, catering to their specific needs and issues rather than a general assumption of their base persona (Gay, 1988). It is shown to be a more flexible and detailed study to gain valid knowledge about the subjects being studied; Piaget was also able to unambiguously determine his children’s behavioral patterns and psyches (Auger and Rich, 2007). Idiographic approaches focus on the understanding of the structure of the mental i. e. the conscious, the unconscious and the preconscious such as George Kelly’s repertory grid technique in addition to Carl Rogers’ Q-sort procedure (Mcleod, 2007). Data gathered from idiographic research allows the creation of unique and effective treatments. The key advantage of this method is the treatment offered after research will be efficient as it has been tailored to suit the particular individuals problem. On the other hand the results derived from idiographic approaches are highly specific and cannot be generalized; they’re based on a limited sample of the population along with unreliable experimentation which makes the data gathered useless to define general characteristics of a group. The information analyzed is unique to the particular individual being studied and does not hold true globally in which case it is considered unscientific by psychologists. In conclusion, while nomothetic and idiographic approaches to personality each have their advantages and disadvantages, it is evident that the type of method used would be based on what the researcher is trying to record. To distinguish a general law of similar characteristic personalities a large, accurate sample from a populace would need to be nomotheticly studied with correlation factors as well as psychometric testing and other forms of quantitative research to drawn upon a fairly conclusive theory. While precise study of an individual, would use the informal, idiographic method to derive an acute understanding of their personality. The nomothetic approach to personality is mainly supported by the trait theories of personality and idiographic approaches to personality are backed up by psychodynamic theories of personality. The main advantages these methods have is they are predominant in their own introspective fields of research while their main downfall poses as long as they remain standalone theories.

Local government taxes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Local government taxes - Essay Example The poorest twenty percent of Americans, on average, pay a combined local and state tax rate of eleven percent while those in the wealthy bracket only pay five and a half percent. This disparity becomes even more pronounced in the Washington State, which possesses the most regressive system of tax with the poorest twenty percent paying an average rate of seventeen percent while the wealthy families pay only 2.3%. What are the most regressive and progressive states? Progressive States The most standout feature of regressive tax states is the progressive nature of income taxes and less reliance on excise and sales taxes. Vermont taxes, for example, are among the least regressive in the US due to their highly progressive income tax and decreased excise and sales taxes (Davis et al 3). Vermont’s tax system is also rendered as a little unfair because of the refundable EITC. Delaware’s income tax regime, however, is not progressive, but the high reliance it has on income taxe s and low utilization of consumption taxes makes its tax system only slightly regressive. The District of Columbia and New York have each achieved a tax system that is close to flat overall via the use of generous EITCs, as well as an income tax that has relatively high top rates (Davis et al 3). However, it should be noted that the least regressive states as far as tax policy is concerned generally still fail to meet the criteria that most people would consider as a minimal standard of tax fairness. In these states, some middle or low-income groups actually pay more local and state income tax than the wealthy actually do. New Jersey is another of the progressive states with their legislature passing a millionaire’s tax, which was vetoed; however, by the Governor for the third straight year. The revenue raised from this would have helped offset property tax decreases for middle class. Finally, Rhode Island came up with an innovative tax idea to reduce incrementally corporate taxes to companies that created employment over a 3-year period in the state, which was a progressive move. Regressive States On the other side, of the tax regimes are ten states that have particularly regressive state and local taxes. These include; Alabama, Pennsylvania, Nevada, Arizona, Illinois, Texas, Tennessee, South Dakota, Florida, and Washington. In these states, residents with lower income are asked to pay almost six times as much income tax as their wealthier counterparts. Middle-income families residing in these states have to pay three times the share of their income when compared to the wealthier families. In a majority of these states, including Nevada, Tennessee, South Dakota and Washington, personal income taxes are not levied on a broad base. The rest of these states, including Illinois and Alabama, do levy income tax, although their income tax is structured in a way that makes them less progressive than, for example, New York and other progressive states. Illinois and Tennessee have an income tax at a flat rate, which taxes the wealthy using similar marginal rates to those used in taxing the poor wage earners. Nevada, Tennessee

Justice Opinion on Hollingsworth v. Perry Essay

Justice Opinion on Hollingsworth v. Perry - Essay Example In the year 2000, the state of California conceded Proposition 22, which became an initiative ruling reaffirming that understanding. Proposition 22 became invalidated by the Supreme Court which demanded that marriage should be redefined to involve homosexual couples (Eskridge 96). Some six months later, the citizens of California took on Proposition 8 that amended the Constitution of California stating that; only heterosexual marriage is valid and can be the only one recognized within California. Perry, et al sued this proposition claiming that it was violating the rights of equal protection under the 14th Amendment (Egan and Sherrill 203). Outcome In an outstanding, although conceivably transitory, victory for equality in marriage, a state appeal panel of the Court invalidated the infamous Proposition 8 of California, an initiative at the ballot that had overturned homosexual marriage within the state. The 9th Circuit made Romer v. Evans the controlling precedent. In a majority opin ion, it could be affirmed that, Proposition 8 plays no plausible, legitimate interest of the state and the only rationale of the initiative’s upholders would be to declare the immaterial worth of lesbians and gays as a category and could humiliate a disfavored class publicly (Eskridge 127). Of course, the proponents of Proposition 8 disputed that, the constitution has no marriage mention in any way thus; states are obligatory to characterize marriage within the 10th Amendment (Horne, Rostosky and Riggle 362). These proponents also uphold the view that customary marriage definition is rationally linked to the vital interest of the society in necessitating the distinctive procreative possibility of heterosexual relationship in enhanced, stable unions for the principles of procreating and bringing up the coming generations. However, the court argued that, Proposition eight was only trying to uphold anti-equality models in the state. The 9th Circuit majority affirmed that Proposi tion 8 undermined the equal protection clause within the United States’ Constitution (Eskridge 95). Syllabus The legal provisions being appealed in this case involve the 14th and 10th Amendments, the strict scrutiny test, and Proposition 8 that became passed by the California citizens. Under the 14th amendment of the U.S. constitution, the equal protection clause offers that any state whatsoever must not deny to any individual within its command the equal defense of the statute. The 10th Amendment signifies that, states have the authority to control marital matters. The federalism system dictates the powers of policing that the state must possess. In other words, the proponents of Proposition 8 signified that the constitution has no marriage mention in any way thus; states are obligatory to characterize marriage within the 10th Amendment (Lannutti 43). That is; in this docket of power, states have generally had jurisdiction to control marriage. Although, the opponents of Prop osition 8 declare that, the 10th Amendment must not be platform used to jeopardize the citizen’s right of equal protection as affirmed under the 14th Amendment. In the argument regarding the 14th Amendment, it became clarified if the states can amend their constitutions to recognize marriage as the union of one woman and one man and whether it violated the equal protection provision. In this case, Proposition 8 cannot withstand strict scrutiny. That is; the proponents fail to

HIV and Communicable diseases Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

HIV and Communicable diseases - Article Example The efforts that it takes to diagnose an individual with HIV and further its treatment are relatively higher for which a great deal of time is needed. It should be noted that there are a number of risk behaviors that are associate with the AIDS treatment. The authors have highlighted different kinds risk behaviors that is more likely to affect various developmental systems of the human body (Schreibman and Friedland). Furthermore, the authors have noted that there is much assistance required for helping the health care practitioners to understand the treatment methods of AIDS. It is because there are different variations in behavior which may differ from gender to gender. There are a number of risks which are associated with the spread of AIDS which have also been studied by the authors. Victims of HIV AIDS are more likely to get affected by other STDs for which the body may not be able to develop

The prevelance of obesity in children with physical disability Dissertation

The prevelance of obesity in children with physical disability - Dissertation Example Obesity is an increasing problem right across the population in western societies, but is perhaps especially a problem if overeating becomes an established habit in childhood at a time when others control what food is chosen and available to a great extent. Ells, Lang et al point to the possible links between obesity and disability. In particular they link the two in cases of muscular skeletal problems and in those with learning difficulties. This is confirmed by the findings of Stewart et al in Scotland when they surveyed ambulatory boys with intellectual disabilities, which often occurs in those with cerebral palsy and Down’s syndrome. According to Clinton Smith there is considerable evidence which indicates that if children with particular risk factors can be identified and the correct action subsequently taken then the situation can be improved. What is clear is that excess body weight in children, whatever their physical condition, presents a significant risk factor for m any conditions that may occur in later life. These include heart attacks, cerebral vascular accidents, diabetes, cancer, disease of the gallbladder disease and arthritis. According to the American Department of Disability and Human Development. ( 2007) there is evidence that the conditions which lead ultimately to conditions such to stroke and heart disease most often have their origins in childhood, where they manifest themselves as high blood pressure or levels of cholesterol which are higher than the norm. For these reasons, no matter what a child’s physical ability levels or inclinations it is important for children to lead as a physically active a lifestyle as possible. Obesity results when a person's calorie intake regularly exceeds their energy needs for such bodily functions as metabolism, the thermal effect of the food consumed , the person’s physical activity level and capabilities and their growth. The majority of energy obtained from food ( roughly 60%) is required for normal metabolic activity. Physical activities require another 25% , the thermal effect of food digested uses 10% and growth requires some 5%.(Spina Bifida Association 2009) Just as eating less than the body requires leads to weight reduction so eating more than required will lead to weight gain. Obesity is therefore more likely than usual to occur in those with restricted mobility, low metabolic levels and who are of restricted growth. In the U.S.A., according to Rogozinski, ( 2007) more than 17% of American children are obese. Parents naturally want to please their children and to care for them. It is when this becomes distorted into bad eating habits that obesity emerges. Also, once established as a habit, it can

Philosophical Conceptions of Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophical Conceptions of Justice - Essay Example However, justice, in a universal definition, entails the knowledge of doing right from wrong and making sure people live in the right way together. It is this ‘right’ way of living that brings controversies in describing social justice among nations. This paper discusses a variety of philosophical conceptions of justice with regard to famous philosophers in their definitions of social justice (Ackerman, 1980). John Locke and Thomas Jefferson John Locke lived in the mid seventeenth century as an English Enlightenment philosopher. He argued that our ancestors once lived in a state of nature that had no government or laws. However, as life advanced and civilization came up, people became stratified into various social classes that required the formulation of laws and regulations in order to cater for the less disadvantaged. This also prohibited the oppression of the less fortunate by the more fortunate. He called this idea of the social contract that enabled all citizens ac quire fundamental rights of life, property, and liberty. However, this depended on people’s consent that he said are an active part of the social contract in which they take part depending on their own accord (Chaffee, 2004). Consequently, a twenty first century philosopher, Chaffee, analyses Locke’s writings in addition to other various ancient philosophers. He says that Locke’s theory is political in that he took up Hobbe’s opinion of human equality and the social contract. Furthermore, he also puts Aristotle’s arguments forward that man is naturally a social creature who cannot survive alone. This means that humanity is fundamentally a social identity and that there is no need to put up a system to control our way of life. However, Hobbes described how this natural socialism could lead to relinquishment of certain rights by high status individuals, hence, leading to oppression and injustice. On the other hand, Thomas Jefferson, the third preside nt of the United States was a profound follower of Locke’s arguments. He believed that every human being is equal and that God gave each unique rights, including liberty, life, and the right to be happy and content. He created his government on the basis that it enabled his people to secure these rights. However, the people still held the right to overthrow the government if they felt that its constitution was not in favor of their happiness and safety. As a result, I believe in Locke’s way of thinking that nowadays life requires a body, like the government, that controls the provision and use of resources on the basis that we are all equal regardless of an individual’s social status. This is because it defines true independence (Marx, 1938). Conceptions of justice Liberalism denotes a free way of acting and thinking in public and private life. It focuses on the role of an individual to possess the power to think and act in whatever way that he or she likes. It is a philosophical view based on Aristotle and Plato’s arguments on justice as was recommended by Locke as the key to a just way of life. It rejects state religion, hereditary privilege, and absolute monarchy as notions that favor inequality among the public and private. In the 19th, liberalism advanced to a political ideology called classical liberalism. This liberalism was still based on the initial liberalism ideas although it advocated for political freedom and civil liberties while opposing how the government interfered with economic freedom. On the other hand, socialism describes an economic ideology that entails social possession of resources, including the ways of production of these resources. It also entails mutual organization of the economy that focuses on benefiting the public as a whole instead of

Embracing cash flows Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Embracing cash flows - Dissertation Example Even the liquidity of a firm is well understood by these ratios. 4g: Key readings for your research design? Internet sources Part 5: Time Management and Location: 5a: Location: UK 5b: Schedule and time planning: for a week Internet book reading for 3 hours every day I have gone through the financial statements of the companies and their analysis for the next 5 hours per day. Introduction: Businesses of late are experiencing many ups and downs in their longevity. The amusing truth is the non-explanation of such contingency to the investors till the last minute as in the case of W.T. Grant which declared its bankruptcy within months of healthy financial reporting. Finally, the investors, creditors and other stakeholders stand to lose because of such non-delivery of information. The onus could be rested on the Income statement and Balance Sheet which form a part of financial statements. They are based on the accrual form of accounting due to which real income figures are somewhat disrup ted. To avoid this confusion, Cash Flow statements were included into the Financial Statement reporting. However, mere statement of facts cannot help as long as meaningful conclusions are not derived from such reports. Hence, ratios have to be derived of such statements. Cash Flow Ratio as a Measure of Performance: Understanding the fact that mere statement of facts is not enough, financial ratio analysis was developed long back and many accountants excel in such measures to this day. But, it has been observed that the regular current and quick ratios are all the more dependent on the base of accrual system as the financial statements themselves. As such, their analysis is not depicting the right picture at... Businesses of late are experiencing many ups and downs in their longevity. The amusing truth is the non-explanation of such contingency to the investors till the last minute as in the case of W.T. Grant which declared its bankruptcy within months of healthy financial reporting. Finally, the investors, creditors and other stakeholders stand to lose because of such non-delivery of information. The onus could be rested on the Income statement and Balance Sheet which form a part of financial statements. They are based on the accrual form of accounting due to which real income figures are somewhat disrupted. To avoid this confusion, Cash Flow statements were included into the Financial Statement reporting. However, mere statement of facts cannot help as long as meaningful conclusions are not derived from such reports. Hence, ratios have to be derived of such statements.Cash Flow Ratio as a Measure of Performance: Understanding the fact that mere statement of facts is not enough, financial ratio analysis was developed long back and many accountants excel in such measures to this day. But, it has been observed that the regular current and quick ratios are all the more dependent on the base of accrual system as the financial statements themselves.As such, their analysis is not depicting the right picture at crucial points. To develop the right analysis, it is understood that the base itself should be transformed. Instead of accrual accounting base, if the cash flows realized were taken as a base, then the analysis would be more expressive.

UKs Land Use Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

UKs Land Use Planning - Essay Example This responsibility is vested with the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in England, in Wales and Scotland the Welsh Assembly Government and the Scottish Executive respectively. In addition these departments have to develop national planning policy guidance within which local authorities have to function (British Geological Survey, n.d.). The endeavour of the Planning Practice Standard is to develop the environmental impact assessment, EIA, as a planning tool in order to promote the objectives of town and country planning. "This PPS updates the RTPI Practice Advice Note 13, published in 1995, to reflect the requirements of the amended EIA Regulations, which came into effect in 1999". In order to implement the European Directive 85/337/EEC, as amended by the Directive 97/11/EC, legislation on environmental impact assessment has been introduced in the UK. Section 71A of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, contains the requirement to carry out EIA of certain planning proposals. (The Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001). The use of land determines irrevocably the fate of natural and semi-natural ecosystems and consequently, sustainable development is ably assisted by Nature conservation policies and their relations with land use exemplify the importance being accorded to planning. This process makes it essential to establish fundamental links between developments in particular localities and environmental changes on a world - wide basis. This methodology requires the adoption of a strategic approach to the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity (Cowell and Owens 2002). The basic human responsibility to protect and improve the environment for the benefit of present and future generations was expressed on the global level as early as 1972, in principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration, but the Aarhus Convention is the first international legal instrument to extend this concept to a set of legal obligations (Stec and Casey - Lefkowitz 2000). Land-use planning is concerned not only with site protection but of late; it is proving of immense relevance in the adoption of a proactively strategic approach to the conservation of nature. This approach must not only concentrate on preservation of what has survived but more importantly, it has to address itself to the problem of habitat restoration and enhancement. In the UK this change is visible in legislation and in the guidance being provided to the local planning authorities from government, statutory agencies and non-governmental organisations, for ensuring the protection of the biodiversity. Planning and nature conservation policy have been influenced to a great extent by the latest interpretations of sustainable development, especially those which involve the concepts of environmental capital and capacity. The role of land use planning has been highlighted by European legislation and in particular the Habitats Directive, which aims to conserve European species and habitats . This Directive, enjoins upon national governments the requirement to nominate Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), which are to be provided with stringent protection. That there are limitations to this approach is borne out by the fact that, despite their protected status, many sites have been lost or damaged as a result of land-use change. The major culprit in this aspect has been development as defined in town and country planning legislation, which has

Influence of Religion on Developing Societies Essay Example for Free

Influence of Religion on Developing Societies Essay Religion has always had some influence on civilization. From the past to the present it has shaped the way civilizations interact, communicate and even fight wars. Religion started out with the different complex societies instilling their rules upon families and then allowing those kinds of families to organize into local government systems. Religion influenced economies to flourish and expand so that trade could be developing thus reducing the threat of war among empires. The importance of religion could never be under stated because it’s influence on politics and the different ethnic groups. However the three religions that have affected civilizations throughout the existence of man have been Islam, Judaism and Christianity. I hope to show how those religions shaped the minds of philosophers, scientists and priests throughout the existence of human beings. In my research I also hope to show how religion forced communities to bond with one another in other to worship God the way they would like without the infringing upon someone else views and I hope to show how conflict influenced the politics of every society. This would reveal how religion plays a big part of our lives whether we believe in God or not. This research also will show how religion influences our present world. The three religious beliefs all do their part to establish a foundation in man’s heart to build a better society, culture and communications with one another. Religion will always influence our beliefs, our civilization, and our moral values. Without Religion societies are dead in the water. Islam is an important part of today’s society and culture. Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in our world. From generation to generation this religion has influenced much of the Muslim countries such as those in the Middle East, Europe and even in the United States. Many in the Jewish and Christian communities consider the Muslim religion as being a reason why there is also conflict in the Middle East over a tiny piece of land called Palestine. This was a land in which religion played an important role in the boundaries and communities that existed during that era. However throughout history, the Islamic religion has been in conflict with other religions that were called â€Å"Infidels† because of their unbelievers in following teachings of the Quran as inspired by Muhammad. This has been the main conflict of the religion of the Islamic with other religions and faiths. Mohammad Nafissi (2005) points out: The ideal type of reformation proposed here is capacions enough no include both Christianity and Islam, but it is also sufficiently determinate to retain and explain the distinctive trajectory of Islam and Islamic reformism. At present certain explicit Koranic injunctions and aspects of the Prophet’s tradition, sunna, and the orthodox Islamic law, sharia which purports to synthesize both as a comprehensive set of lasting rules of conduct, apparently stand opposed to central tenants of modernity, gender equality, and equality in law and rights between Muslims and non-Muslims or separation of religion and state. The suggest a prima facie case for the view that Islam is an obstacle to modernity, democracy, and economic progress. (p. 3) Muhammad was influence by some elements of Judaism and Christianity. Both of those religions believed in Monotheism and this had an impact upon the thinking of Muhammad who also taught again idolatry. However Muhammad believed that Jesus Christ was an ordinary prophet just like Peter, Paul and others. Mohammad Nafissi (2005) further notes: The centerpiece of the Islamic reform of Judaism and Christianity was a rationalizing agenda that synthesized them as what can be accurately described as a Judeo-Christianity that anticipated Protestantism in some areas and went beyond it at least in one crucial respect, Mohammad did not deny the ministries of Moses and the Jesus, but claimed to have been sent to purify the corrupted Judaism and Christianity at the time. Jesus was a prophet, but to worship him as a divine was precisely the mark of pagan magic, ignorance, and neglect of the one supreme God that had sent Mohammad and all the preceding prophets. p. 7) This ancient view has been the origin of conflict against Judaism and Christianity to the 21st century. It has caused cultures to collide against each other and millions of innocent people have suffered hardships due to wars, terrorists, bombings, and commendations. Islam is specially has a hatred of Jewish people because of their claims to be God’s chosen people. (Evangeliou, 2003) The Jewish has been the center piece of the nation of Israel for centuries. The nation is one of the tiniest on the planted however it is one of the strongest military and intelligent people in society. Their culture has been studied and copied for ages. Judaism is a religion that can be traced back to the Jewish people that believed in the worship of one God. History showed that in those ancient times many complex societies worshiped different deities. This led to many different groups and communities that had placed status, magic and other strange views that influenced events in that era. Judaism is known in our present society because of the â€Å"first chapter of both the Jewish Torah and the Christian Bible†. (Sanders, et al. , 2006, p. 6) It is also noted the accounts of several events that end up shaping the world then and now. The monotheism belief influenced the heart and spirit of many in the Jewish culture. This is extremely important because of how it was able to grow in influence throughout the ancient world to the world that we live in today. Historical accounts of the Judaism reveal many concepts and practices that many cultures and civilizations still uses today. An example would be the eating of certain kinds of meats for dietary bases; the military planning that enable a young lad name David to defeat the great Philistine champion names Goliath. pg. 72) The development of many methods to help understand our universe and the environment all come gets its foundation from Judaism. The role of religion played in influencing the Jewish woman in loving their family and devoting their lives to God and their homes. Politically, religion was the foundation that influences one section of the tribes of Israel to break from tradition and form their own government. (Para. 2) Religion also influenced economies in the Jewish civilizations. Complex societies were formed that religion could dictate to the rule of law and expand their beliefs to other societies. In my studies I found that the concept of many of the complex Judean societies formed cities and states to maintain some order and to create a form of government that would follow the principles of the Torah that was given by Yahweh. (Bentley, et al. , 2008) Religion influence how the Jewish people traveled and intermingle with other ethnical groups in different parts of the ancient world. However there was another religion that has its part in the influencing its faith into the ancient world. Christianity is the best known for impact upon the world in the ancient era through our present. Christianity is a religion can be traced as far back as the first century. This religion centers on the life Jesus Christ and the early church. It is the belief that Jesus Christ was the son of God who came upon the earth to sacrifice his life to save man from their sins and have everlasting life. This doctrine is unlike from what the Jewish and Islam beliefs are. The Judaism religion still awaits their king to come and save them from this world while Islam followers have a firm belief of Muhammad as being a prophet with the same divinity as Jesus Christ. When you look at the history of Christianity as it is written, accounts indicate that Christianity formed societies, complex communities, armies, and economies all over the world. What I found so interesting was how fast Christianity was able to spread in parts of Europe, Asia, Northern Africa and finally to America. This doctrine affected how people lived, interact, and worked to support themselves. The belief that Christianity offered a deliverance from a world of wars, conflict, diseases, sin, and intolerance is the driving force behind Jesus Christ. Researcher has found that Christianity started around the first century C. E. (Sanders, et al. , 2006 p. 221) The Jewish sects didn’t like how the Roman Empire how they took control of Palestine. (Para. 2). This led to a new to a new religion and the need to have written records pertaining to the words of Jesus Christ. (Pg. 222) History indicates that a Jew named Saul who was â€Å"trained as a rabbi and scholarly religious leader in the Jewish tradition† (Sanders, et al. , 2006 Para. 1) was converted to Christianity on the road to Damascus. After the vision, Saul followed God’s word and changed his name to Paul and became was instrumental in testifying about his experience and converting both Gentiles and Jews to the new religion. What Christianity done is to give communities a foundation to build a culture, government, and economy based on Christian principles. Christianity was somewhat different than Islam and Judaism because it didn’t teach to judge people but allow God to be the one who would judge individuals by the way that person lives his/her life. Some fractions of Islam have a firm belief in going to heaven if they kill innocent people for being unbelievers. This is what makes Christianity stand out among others in the world. Christianity is a bridge to God not to wage war against unbelievers or to force people in communities convert but give the world a new religion based on love, peace and the vision of being delivered from sin. In every era Christianity has influenced the changing of cultures, economies and governments. The role of government in modern times have all developed on the foundation of three principles, either you are of Jewish, Islamic or Christian faiths. Many wars and conflicts have resulted because of the views of their religion beliefs. Scholars and theorists have often debate about the role of religion in the lives of society. This has caused a battle between the three main faiths in today’s societies. Scott Thomas (2002) notes† One of the main debates among theorists of the international relationships is the nature of The social bonds that hold states together as an international society. This debate has Brought together theorists of the otherwise sharply contending schools of neorealist Structuralism. The current versions of the traditions of Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, And Rousseau) and of neoliberal institutionalism (the contemporary forms of traditions From Grotius, Kant, Bentham, and Rawls). (Pg. 110) This debate involves the resurgence of religion that is dictating the modularization of our global world. It is affecting how we eat, work, build, socialize, and communicate with others. This resurgence is gro wing so fast that it will eventually become one religion. Christianity will be the religion that will dominate the world in our present and generations to come. People see and form their own opinions about religion. When religion can provide a better life for poor, the elderly, the family structure, and then it will achieve it desire. For the worship of God is for the needy, downcast and others that long for a change in their lives. Christianity is the religion that is best suited for the masses. Research indicates, that when communities feel comfortable about being able to worship they have a desire to live better lives, work harder , form interpersonal relationships and become productive in society. Many political leaders throughout the ages have made promises of wealth, religious freedom and equality for all however this has not been the case. Thomas (2002) writes â€Å"The failure of this modernizing mythology to produce what is promised, and the failure of the modernizing secular states it engendered, is evident in what is identified as â€Å"Political decay,† (Para. 5) It is a known fact that people do not trust the words of politicians anymore. This is the reason for the resurgence of Christianity in our communities. If there is no form of Christian beliefs to revive our culture and communities, we are going to suffer a long period of hardships, wars, and famine in our lands. The role of Christianity can help reshape the family structure to re include God in every our lives, educate our children and provide a sense of comfort to individuals that need comfort. It will force government to acknowledge how important Christianity is in establishing a good economy and providing human rights to its people. This is the one religion that can bring communities together and enable fellowship by the methods of salvation through Jesus Christ. Without this happening, the world would be without any laws or righteous government to run it. In other words, societies would be dead in the water.

Roles and Responsibilities- River Island case study Essay Example for Free

Roles and Responsibilities- River Island case study Essay Roles and Responsibilities In a business every employee has a position or role within their workplace. A manager is expected to lead his or her employees, a supervisor is assumed to be good at teaching others as they are usually training additional employees. In this section I will explain the different roles and responsibilities a manager, supervisor and an employee may have including their decision making and problem solving techniques involved in their role. Roles and responsibilities of a Manager: A River Island manager has many responsibilities; they are responsible for the hiring and training of new staff members. The manager has to read through applications and decide whom to interview. The manager has to decide whether the candidate is right for the job in other words fits in with the shops working environment. The shop manager is also reliable for training all hires in the businesss procedures and policies. I spoke to River Island shop managers and she informed me that one of her roles as a manager is to manage her staff. A shop manager has to inform all staff members of their working hours and duties within the shop she also has to think about awarding hard-working staff with promotions or bonuses. On the other hand those who fail to accomplish a duty, the manager will warn them under the disciplinary procedures of the company. In addition a shop manager’s duty is to record and manage all the money that goes into the store. The shop manager must record the amount of money that goes in and out of the store each day, they have to keep track of the stores spending, and including staffing hours and often distributes pay checks to employees. Roles and responsibilities of a Supervisor: A supervisor’s role is to organise the store, a river Island supervisor has to co-ordinate activities of the assigned department, and they usually have to determine how important the activities are on a daily basis. For example an employee who works in the men clothing section in River Island may be assigned the role of organising and cleaning up that department, it is the supervisor’s job to make sure the employee knows this. The supervisor is in charge of making sure that the Sales assistant reports that those jobs are completed for the week. Supervisors have to check the store for cleanliness and ensure that the store display is neat and organized before the store opens. And if the store manager is not available the supervisor steps in to manage the store activities. Supervisors hold staff meetings to discuss issues staff member may have in performing their job within this meeting they discuss changes in routines, clothing offers or discounts. Roles and responsibilities of an Employee (Sales Assistant): I contacted a River Island employee and asked on the main responsibilities of being a River Island sales assistant. The Sales Assistant expressed to me the different responsibilities she had. It is an employee’s job to look after customers when they are shopping meaning they must be ready to answer questions and find items for customers. An employee also must be able to give good advice to their customers ‘As River Island representatives we are expected to ‘step up’ when necessary’. She also declared her role in making sure customers visit to the store is enjoyable and pleasant. Moreover she makes sure her approach to customers is polite and respectable she does this by greeting customers as they enter and leave the store, dealing with customer’s complaints professionally and making sure the customer is satisfied with the conclusion. As well as the above, a sales assistant has to make sure that all shelves are stocked up. Replenishing stock is one of a sales assistant’s most important jobs alongside being able to work at tills and balance the cash registers with receipts received. Qualities and Skills Qualities and Skills of a Manager: A manager must have many skills and qualities. An ideal manager for a retail store must be able to bring out the best in others as well as themselves. A manager should be able to discipline his/her staff, working as a role model towards their staff. A good manager should also be able to commit to a task or activity. On the River Island website I found out information on special skills a manager should have to conduct his/her job successfully. An ideal manager should have good communication skills as they have to communicate with their employees, good leadership skills, are focused, able to persuade his/her employees and organised, a manager should be able to divide large tasks and activities into manageable ones. A manager with good communication skills can help to build an organised and effective team of employees. It also helps to build and manage performance of their team members, having good communication skills can benefit the maintenance of relationships between employees. It is also crucial for a manager because it allows them to deal with customer complaints limiting any negative feedback about your business. A manager should be able to be persuasive and have good organisational, leadership skills. This allows employees to feel as if they can trust their manager; they feel as if they want to be led by them not have to be. This not only helps an employee grow fond of their job but also motivates them to give 100% effort. Helping to give the business an outstanding reputation and influences more customers to buy from their store. Qualities and Skills of a Supervisor: Sometimes the manager may not be available so this is when a supervisor steps in. A supervisor has to have similar skills to a manager but supervisors are more in contact with their fellow employees. A supervisor should have good flexibility and time management as well as basic communication skills. A supervisor should be able to motivate his/her employees to perform as well as they can to help the business succeed. Good flexibility can ensure that a supervisor is responsive to changes in the work place and is not blown off by any difficult situations. For example a customer complaint, a good supervisor especially for River Island should be able to stay calm under pressure and respond quickly to difficult circumstances. This also helps to keep the reputation of the business at its highest as customers are more likely to buy from somewhere that is knowledgeable in all situations. A supervisor should be able to manage their time, by doing this it keeps the employees confident that they are being led by someone who knows what they are doing, with this employees work harder increasing productivity, customer service and revenue. Qualities and Skills of an Employee: For a sales assistant especially at a clothing store they must be able to work as part of a team, enjoy working with the public as well as be confident when dealing with difficult situations for example difficult customers. Moreover an employee must have these key skills: †¢ Have a polite and helpful manner †¢ Have basic mathematical skills, for dealing with payments and stock checks and are comfortable with using computerised equipment such as tills. This enhances customer services where customers will tell their friends and family to visit the store due to their good services meaning more customers further more increasing the revenue for the store. †¢ be flexible, adaptable, reliable and trustworthy. These skills helps to prevent reduced employees loyalty due to this more employees refrain from their jobs. This means more money is spent on recruiting more staff, increasing a company cost which is not good for a business’s finances. Training and Development Opportunities According to the River Island website River Island invests in staff and encourages career development. River Island offer many different methods of training for example for sales advisors and store managers they perform a 3-4 week induction programme at a training store. They also provide skill development workshops relevant to the role you have in the river island job for example if you are a manager there are workshops to help you improve on your time management skills, organisation, delegation and other key skills a manager should have. Most River Island stores have regular progress reviews to monitor performance and development needs of individual employees. Even skilled managers have management training modules (relevant to their role) where they train managers off the job basic but in depth skill of being a manager. These training days help to enhance employee’s performance on the job. Benefiting River Island as a business because their employees are always well trained and know what they are doing. Customers would rather go to a store that is well known for employees who are helpful and organised rather than ones that lack these simple skills. ‘We want to help you make the most of your career with River Island and hope you enjoy working with us. ’ Methods of motivation The River Island company use methods of motivation to encourage their employees to do a better job than they otherwise would. Some of the ways River Island motivate their staff is by offering staff discounts of 30% off on items of clothing or accessories within the store for employees a further discount of 50% off if you are a manager. Also River Island offers a monthly salary to their staffs which ensures to pay staff no matter how much hours they work. On top of this River Island also allow their staff to work together in teams to complete certain tasks, this can make the job seem more enjoyable to the staff with a much more comfortable relaxing environment. This helps to retain staff because employees prefer a job were offers and discounts are issued especially with a popular clothing store like River Island rather than working in an environment that does not offer any type of fringe benefits .This relates to the Maslow Hierarchy of needs theory, as staff at River Island feels a sense of belonging working in groups and are meeting their everyday survival needs. Motivating your staff can help to keep a business successful. A River Island staff member said ‘The more motivated I am the harder I work to help the business reach its goals to earn more money’. Motivating your staff can help to increase output, improve quality of your business as well as save money for your business. If employees are keen to stay with the company then money is not loss on hiring and training of new staff. Based on Hertzberg two-factor theory of motivation, I believe River Island could offer more methods of motivation in a way to retain staff, for example empowerment. Empowering an employee makes them feel as if they are being noticed for the hard work they are putting in. This can make a staff member put in extra work and take pride in the extra work they are doing increasing output and quality of the business. . PEST Factors Organisations can face problems from external factors which can affect a business’s products, policies, people and profits. It is a useful strategic tool for understanding market growth or decline, business position, potential and direction for operations. A PEST analysis is usually carried out by business planners this allows them to improve their strategies. Political Factors Political factors usually affect the ways in which changes in the government policy can influence businesses. River Island has to abide by the employment laws developed by the government. This may include the equal pay act of 1970 that women and men should receive equal pay for doing the same type of work or even the race relations act of 1976 which states that making discriminations against an employee on grounds of their race is illegal. Other factors may include the sex discrimination act, 1925 which protects employees against discrimination due to the gender for example if river island was promoting manager recruitment they cannot state the employee has to be of a specific gender. Though this does not apply in all situations if there was recruitment for a female attendant for the female changing rooms this would not apply. Similar to the race relations act of 1976 also states discrimination on grounds of race is illegal though there are GOQ’s genuine occupation qualifications that are legitimate in some cases. One of the most recent acts produced lately is the national minimum wage act, 1998. This ensures than employees are not exploited and are paid enough for them to survive. Minimum wage is increased every year in line with the rise in cost of living. Currently the adult rate for workers over 21 is  £6.19.River Island has key principles against these, and states that employment is freely chosen, living wages are paid, working hours are not excessive, discrimination is not practised and regular employment is provided. Economic Factors Economic factors are those that may limit the customer from buying optional luxuries. Economic factors include taxation, inflation, interest rates and economic growth. During a recession, consumers spend less on optional items such as cars and appliances. As a result, the business environment suffers. Alternatively, if the economic environment is one of affluence, consumers are more likely to spend money, not just on necessities, but larger items as well. Last year recession meant that some employee’s wages were cut down, not much employees were made redundant because of this but wages were slashed to pay for other company costs. In case of an unemployment decrease, turnover will rise and recruiting more employees will become harder though the opposite effect if unemployment increases. Another economic factor is Inflation usually affects someone’s buying power –rising prices means you pay more for the same goods. If there is a rise there is a high probability that there will be a fall in the amount of merchandise bought from River Island. These means business costs increase and sometimes have to stop producing lots of merchandise and focus on spending money on important cost leaving some workers unemployed. Social Factors Social trends are one of the key factors affecting a business; this can include the demographics, age distribution and lifestyle. Social trends are important as they focus on the society and at the end of the day, if the public are buying then the demand at River Island will increase, which means more production. The demands for some popular clothes are determined by fashion. Fashion trends are constantly changing every season meaning more customers are willing to buy from a popular up to date clothing store due to its good reputation. People are now more career focused than previous years, people seem to be more determined to achieve a good status in their dream job to make money and buy all their wants and needs. The most significant sign of this is working mothers- back in the 50’s women were forced to stay at home to cook and clean for their families. Now women have the opportunity to work especially to provide for their families. Though working mothers mainly work part time to cater to when they need to pick up their children from school, though it is now modern for women not to have children. They are much more career focused. More and more employees are trying to make as much money as possible, though River Island is not a store that pay their employees high wages, not much of a ‘career focusing job’. River Island, works enthusiastically with its suppliers and official agencies around the world to provide a standard health and safety regulation to its employees. The company always ensures that their suppliers sign a contract which commit to World Wide Ethical standards and those who violate them will be prosecuted. Technological Factors Technology has both a negative and positive effect on business recruitment. The positives are that technology like online selling and shopping can benefit an employee because it allows them to sell River Island clothing and accessories online to a wider variety of people on websites like EBay or Amazon. It also can provide more jobs in creating websites, maintaining and updating the website which a River Island representative could do. Though technology can be a disadvantage having a website means fewer employees to recruit as people can easily just buy products online. Employers also can now employ people who have good IT skills; this can help to keep River Island as a business up to date. Online selling/websites can affect the workforce of River Island, this because consumers find it easier and more effective for them to purchase items online. This affects employees of River Island; they may lose their job because River Island can now reduce cost, and spend it effectively. Employers can also use social networking sites as ways of keeping an eye on their employees, investigating on what they are really like. This is happening more often now, though these social networking sites can act as way of motivating staff by building a relationship with them outside the working environment.

Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry

Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry 1.1 Introduction: When World War1 broke out in 1914, it ended almost 100 years of relative peace in Europe. America at that time adopted a policy of neutrality and isolation regarding war. This approach was fully supported by the people of America at that time but later, in 1917 the German submarines entered the US marine territories against which the US government finally had to break the ice. So, as a reaction to German invasion America finally launched a counter attack and consequently the whole nation plunged into the great World War1. Unaware of the consequences America unwillingly had to participate in the greatest holocaust of the world known as the World War1. America would never have become a part of World War1 and have stuck to its neutral policy but the German submarines defied the US marine laws and entered the US territories on January 9th, 1917. Woodrow Wilson the US president at that time finally asked congress to declare war on Germany and it was April 2nd, 1917. As a result of this legitimate order America joined the war along with the other Allies. On the other hand the continent of Europe was under the attack of war where World War1 rose like a wall of blood red mountains. Despite having massive military and great weapons war killed ten million Europeans, most of them were young soldiers, nurses and subjects and all became the victims of ultimate death brought by heavy war weapons, flying jets and bullets swimming in the air. It was deaths command everywhere and when death comes to its empire it kills all what it finds. Similar was the situation in America where men, women and children all were on the mercy of a single bullet. Four million American soldiers were killed in war and almost equal number of civilians got killed and injured men, women and children left homeless due to the great wreckage all around with the spread of epidemic disease that resulted in the cause of further deaths of many civilians. It was a chaotic situation after the war ended in 1919. People were completely disillusioned and stunned by the aftermaths of the World War1. They were hopeless and unaware of their futures. The basic matrix of life was completely dissolved by the cruel war and human civilization became a victim of demolition. People lost their faith in basic norms and values of life as war took away with it their hopes, happiness and loved ones too. They seemed completely lost with having no basic aim behind being alive. Young men and women of America started living like herds of sheep and were spending life just for the sake of killing time. Eventually the war ended but it left behind its impact on the mind of masses and its terror got stored into the minds of the post-war generations. People became mentally sick and even after the war was over they felt its aftershocks later on in their lives. World War1 was the greatest trauma of the lives of a great number of Americans who survived the brutal attack of the war. The post-war American race became a victim of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and other mental disorders which were the result of the shocks given by the World War1. PTSD is a severe kind of state of mind after a great shock or accident that leads a human being to become a patient of insomnia and several other mental retardations. Almost each community and every class in Americas post-war society became a victim of PTSD which became a cause of disbelief and disgracing of the traditional life style on part of American generation. Watching all the above mentioned events and incidents in the midst of the battle fields and among the victims of the World War1 was present Ernest Hemingway, an American Red Cross ambulance driver who witnessed and used all these war events and post-war condition of the society as a backdrop of his literary works. Hemingway represented the American society and a post-war perturbed American generation which is known as the Lost Generation of America. Hemingway being a spokesman of the lost generation, masterly managed to give a unique account of events and incidents that took place in the war and changed the lives of millions of Americans. Hemingways main concern was the American society and its members who were suffering from a post-war disturbed psychological state of mind. Aiken (1926) writes in his essay as edited by Meyers (1982) as follows: The half dozen characters, all of whom belong to the curious and sad little world of disillusioned and aimless expatriates who make what home they can in the cafes of Paris, are seen perfectly and unsentimentally by Mr. Hemingway and are put before us with a maximum of economy 1. (90) As we know wars have always been a cause of destruction, devastation and demolition on a great scale since the descent of mankind on earth. There is no doubt that wars shatter the matrix of human civilization and bring forth despair, death and disease for mankind. Surpassing all the previous wars, the great World-Wars dismantled the hopes, dreams and races on a large scale and nations falling victims of disillusionment, aimlessness and mental stress and physical disorders. One of the greatest diseases that damage the brain after a war is ‘Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, a severe state of human mind after a shock or a trauma. Durand and Barlow (2000) comment on PTSD as follows: In recent years we have heard a great deal about the severe and long-lasting emotional disorders that can occur after a variety of traumatic events. Perhaps the most impressive traumatic event is war, but emotional disorders also occur after physical assault (particularly rape), car accidents, natural catastrophes, or the sudden death of a loved one. The emotional disorder that follows a trauma is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 2. (131) Then I. Sarason and Sarason (2006) in their book on Abnormal Psychology comment: PTSD involves an extreme experience, such as war, a natural catastrophe (for instance an earthquake), a physical assault, or a serious car crash. The traumas range from those that are directly experienced (e.g., being threatened with death) to those that are witnessed (e.g., family member being threatened with death). The onset of the clinical condition in posttraumatic disorders varies from soon after the trauma to long after it has occurred. Most studies have found higher rates among women than men. The prevalence of PTSD in the general population is about 0.5% in men and 1.2% in women (Andreasen and Black, 2001). Because life today is considered to be high in trauma for the population in general, it is estimated that Americans currently have a 5 to 10% chance of developing PTSD at sometime during their lifetimes. The combination of vulnerability factors and exposures earlier in life to traumatic experiences increases the likelihood of PTSD. For instance, having been abused as a ch ild or have had other previous traumatic experiences increases the risk for PTSD, especially for individuals who generally have emotional difficulties, such as anxiety and depression 3. (256) Now keeping in mind the American society which is the sole area of our research, we found the reason behind PTSD in American society and the characters introduced to us by Ernest Hemingway in his works. And that reason was the First World War and its aftermath. The lives of millions of people were badly influenced by World War I in America and in Europe as well. The great holocaust changed the whole concept of life by destroying the basic norms and traditional beliefs in all parts of the world. Priestley (1962) comments on World War I as follows: In the very middle of this age the First World War rises like a wall of blood-red mountains. Its frenzied butchery, indefensible even on a military basis, killed at least ten million Europeans, mostly young and free from obvious physical defects. After being dressed in uniform, fed and drilled, cheered and cried over before they were packed into their cattle-trunks, these ten million were then filled with hot lead, ripped apart by shell splinters, blown to bits, bayoneted in the belly, choked with poison gas, suffocated in mud, trampled to death or drowned, buried in collapsing dugouts, dropped out of burning aero planes, or allowed to die of diseases, after rotting to long in trenches that they shared with syphilitic rats and typhus-infested lice. Death, having come into his empire, demands the best, and got it 4. (321) Almost all the works of Ernest Hemingway are a result of his first-hand experience of war and his staunch observation of life around him. Most of his works prove to be autobiographical in nature and Cooperman (1964) comments on autobiographical nature of Hemingways works as follows: Three elements in Hemingways life shaped many of his attitudes, and indeed shaped much of his works: the fact that in World War I, he suffered a painful and terrible mortar wound, which made him conscious of the dread possibilities of the loss of manhood; the fact that his father committed suicide; and the fact of his growing old†¦ and the fears created by old age itself. Similar to Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms, Jake Barnes in The Sun Also Rises, and Santiago in The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway was afflicted with the fear of letting go and the fear of thinking. The nightmare of chaos, of passivity, loss of will, loss of initiative, loss of masculine role was a terrible nightmare, and one to be avoided at all costs 5. (85-92) It has already been observed that all the Hemingway fiction comes from his war experiences and the aftermath of the war. Many critics have commented on this experience-based technique of Ernest Hemingway. According to Putnam (2006), Tobias Wolff at the Hemingway centennial celebration said, â€Å"Hemingways great war work deals with aftermath. It deals with what happens to the soul in war and how people deal with that afterward.† Putnam (2006) further comments: No American writer is more associated with writing about war in the early 20th century than Ernest Hemingway. He experienced it firsthand, wrote dispatches from innumerable frontlines, and used war as a backdrop for many of his most memorable works 6. Ernest Hemingway is best known as the representative of the â€Å"Lost Generation† of America. He as an artist and writer of literature selected characters from the post-war American society as he was himself a member of that society and he observed it staunchly. Most of his works are based on his personal experience of the society and that is why he is often himself present in his novels as a leading character. Asselineau (1980) comments on Hemingways fiction as follows: It was indeed a â€Å"lost generation† in more senses than one. Yet, Hemingway among others survived the Great War for over forty years and, after appearing as the cynical and disillusioned Byron of twentieth century, ultimately turned into a new â€Å"teacher of athletes† and a â€Å"professeur d energie† a la Barres. A rather surprising change and a very spectacular recovery, which we can follow step by step in his works, since his novels make up an interminable Bildungsroman whose hero is always himself 7. While going through the works of Ernest Hemingway one realizes that Hemingway has very skillfully managed to present before us a group of expatriates who had left their homeland America after getting disillusioned by the war and were living as useless people in different parts of Europe under a special code of life. Asselineau (1980) comments as follows: All the veterans of foreign wars who appeared in Hemingways fiction are united by a common belief in an unwritten code. They are morally and physically very tough. They can take it. They keep a stiff upper lip. They grin and bear it. They refuse to discuss their own emotion and despise loquacious swaggerers like Robert Cohn. They hate gushing. They believe in self control and self imposed discipline. They have reached true wisdom in the etymological meaning of the word â€Å"wisdom†. They are those who know- who know that they are mortal and that sooner or later life ends in death. They know that man- whatever he does- will sooner or later be crushed by the hostile forces which surround him and is bound to be defeated- defeated, but not vanquished, for, like Pascal, they believe in the dignity of man, â€Å"a mere reed, and the weakest that can be found on earth, but even when the universe crushes him, man is still nobler than what kills him, for he knows that he is dying, wh ile the advantage that the universe has over him, the universe is unaware of it.† 8 (1844) High (1986) has also commented on the lost generation as follows: Man young people the post-World War 1 period had â€Å"lost† their American ideals. At the same time America â€Å"lost† many fine young writers- like e.e. cummings and Hemingway- because they had moved to Paris. Fitz Geralds first novel, This Side of Paradise (1920), describes this new generation. They had â€Å"grown up to find all gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.† Two concerns now filled their lives: â€Å"the fear of poverty and the worship of success.† 9 (143) Hemingways The Sun Also Rises proves to be the best of his works and it was also his first proper novel on lost generation of America. The novel stands as a monument over which the whole drama of the lost generation of America has been carved. It was Gertrude Stein the American authoress and Hemingways mentor who for the very first time told E. Hemingway: â€Å"You are all a lost generation.† Hemingway was struck by the comment and used it as an epigraph and also the theme of his first novel, Fiesta (called The Sun Also Rises in US. Ousby (1979) in his essay The Lost Generation comments as follows: Today the ‘lost Generation has come to seem an over-worked catchphrase. Used indiscriminately in its own era, the title has been claimed by successive generations of writers and applied retrospectively to earlier schools, such as the American naturalists. Yet the term remains useful in discussing the novelists of 1920s, if only because epitomizes the way they liked to see themselves. 10 (205) Ousby (1979) further explains the characteristics of the writers of lost generation in following words: Their unique and common experience was a disillusion bred by the First World War. They returned from that conflict to a society whose values seemed hollow and artificial by comparison with the harsh realities of the battle-field. Their alienation from America often took the form of exile and expatriation: Hemingway and Dos Passos spent most of their early adult lives in Europe, while Scott Fitzgerald and Thomas Wolfe were frequent visitors. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that Paris became the extra-parliamentary centre of American culture in 1920s. It was the shrine to which most ambitious young writers of the era made their pilgrimage. 11 (206) Ousby (1979) in the same essay tells us the factors which affected the writings of the writers of lost generation in the following words: Disillusioned with society in general and America in particular, the novelists of the Lost Generation cultivated a romantic self-absorption- a deliberate retreat into private emotion. They became precocious experts in tragedy, suffering and anguish. The early novels of Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald are peopled by sad, bitter young men who have lost all illusions at an early age; Amory Blaine of This Side of Paradise and Jake Barnes of Fiesta are the prime examples. They are haunted by war memories and by images of violence, cynical about idealism in any form, and given to only the most cryptic and laconic expressions of feeling. 12 (206) Ousby (1979) also comments on the characters introduced to us by the writers of lost generation as follows: The characters of Lost Generation novels live in restless pursuit of excitement and pleasure. Their Europe is not the gallery of cultural objects found in Hawthornes and Jamess fiction: it is a Europe of elegant restaurants, picturesque bars and intriguing local customs. They delight in kicking over the conventional traces (and in the resultant cries of middle- class horror), indulging in heavy drinking and casual sex. 13 (207) It was only Ernest Hemingway, who among the most famous writers of lost generation of America has been able to won the title of the avant-garde writer of the lost generation. His novel The Sun Also Rises was recommended all over the world as a true story featuring real people from the lost generation. This novel also made Hemingway a world-known celebrity. Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments: This book made him, almost instantly, an international celebrity identified with an entire generation, torn by war and grieving throughout the Roaring Twenties for their lost romantic idealism. Although he was somewhat ill-suited for the role, because he was a hard-working young writer with a wife and a son to support, he came to be regarded as the spokesman for American expatriates, those disillusioned and disaffected artists, writers, and intellectuals who spent the decade on the Left Bank in Paris. 14 (87) In his novel The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses Jake as a puppet, a narrator and also his famous code hero. Jake narrates the whole story which Hemingways eye saw sincerely. Nagel (1996) again in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on the character of Jake Barnes as follows: He is certainly one of the most isolated and vulnerable figures in American literature, and he narrates out of his disillusionment and pain, his grief evident throughout. As he says about himself, all he wants is to figure out how he can live in the world. It would seem that telling what happened is part of the process of learning how to live in the special circumstances of his world. 15 (90) Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on Jake being a representative of lost generation in following words: Hemingway humanized this dichotomy in the character of Jake Barnes by creating a man who bears the wounds of the war in a profoundly personal way yet combines his disillusionment with traditional American values of hard work and just compensation. It is surely an oversimplification to see Jake as an uncompromised representative of lost generation radicalism, for he exhibits much of the midwestern values he sometimes satirizes†¦ Above all, it is his judgment that provides the normative sensibility for assessing the people and events of the novel. But to grasp the meaning of what he relates, it is essential to understand the psychological context in which he tells it. 16 (91) Lady Ashley Brett is another important character from the lost generation. She is pure nymphomaniac sort of a woman and is a true representative of the women of the early 20th century. According to Nagel (1996), â€Å"Brett is by no means the first representation of a sexually liberated, free-thinking woman in American literature but rather an embodiment of what became known as the â€Å"New Woman† in nineteenth-century fiction.† Nagel (1996) further says: Brett is not only a women but an extraordinary woman for the age, a point not clear unless she is considered in historical context. Form this perspective, the women in The Sun Also Rises might be regarded as more interesting then the men. The role of women in society had been changing with each decade for a century, always with a good deal of social conflict and ideological struggle. 17 (92) Keeping in mind the agony of Jake due to his relation with Brett, we may easily nominate him as the most suffering person in the novel. His love with Brett makes him feel the pain of his wound which he got during the war, because he could not physically fulfill what he felt. According to Nagel (1996): From the beginning, the world is out of sexual order, the social evening is a parody of erotic potential, and the deeper irony is that this pathology is at the very heart of Jake and Bretts relationship. Their conversation in the taxi reveals the central problem of the novel: that they one another, that they feel that there is nothing they can do about it, that it is painful and destructive for them to be together. Whatever else happens is driven by this fact, and it is impossible for them to change it. The central dilemma for Jake is whether he can change the situation by finding some satisfaction in life. The problem for Brett is that she needs companionship of a man, and no one but Jake can offer her much beyond fleeting sexual pleasure. 18 (94) Jake truly deserves pity because he is the one who lost the most he had during war and even afterwards. His love with Brett gives him nothing except pain and he is also unable to sleep at night due to the agony brought by his love for Brett. Nagel (1996) comments: The â€Å"loss† in the â€Å"lost generation† is sustained primarily by him, and it makes for powerful fiction. The novel works, ultimately, because Jake, in anomalous circumstances, nevertheless presents a normative sensibility in the story he tells. He emerges as a man of intelligence, humor and good sense who lost more than he deserved in World War 1 but learned how to make a life for himself. 19 (105) According to Martin (1987): Jake Barnes and his friends- all of them- are a group because they share the same beliefs and experiences. Except for Robert Cohn, whose differences are less heinous than Jake sometimes thinks them to be, the displaced Americans and Britons are moving through a festival period in their lives, punctuating their aimless existence abroad with an organized visit to Spain for the bullfights. 20 (07) The characters introduced to us by Hemingway live under a peculiar but yet an extraordinary code of life. They behave like a community of people sharing similar set of thoughts and beliefs. Martin (1987) in her New Essays on The Sun Also Rises says: A key theme is the notion of community: These are people who understand each other, the rules they live by, and the reasons for their choices. Only someone outside that community will have difficulty with the social code. Count Mippipopolous may be a stranger to the group, but he understands the code and fits into the society. Robert Cohn, although he spends much time with the members of the group and thinks himself a special friend of both Jake and Brett, never manages to assimilate the rules. Jake, however, is clearly in charge- of the plans, the guest list, the activities, and the emotional nuance. He is the apparent hero of the novel, and his approval or disapproval sets the pattern for the other characters reaction to things. 20 (08) All the characters in the novel The Sun Also Rises seem dissatisfied and unhappy and most of the time they feel themselves useless. Martin (1987) comments on this condition of the characters in following words: There are many reasons for these characters unhappiness. To dwell on â€Å"irony and pity† is just a pastime; the real issues are the lack of alignment between profession and occupation, between lovers, between vacation and work, between ideals of Spain and France, between nature and the commercial. As full of disjunctures as a picture puzzle, The Sun Also Rises still presents a story whole, its fragments necessarily scattered throughout the narrative, and readers accept the fragmentation as one the marks of Hemingways truth. They seize on the purity of Pedro Romero, the wit of the bemused Mike Campbell, the taciturn acceptances of Jake Barnes, the flip bravado of Brett Ashley as the symbols of the characters who survive the onslaught of real life. 21 (16) Chapter 2 Life and Works of Ernest Hemingway 2.1 Birth and Parentage: Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21st, 1899. His father was a doctor. He spent much of his time in his early days roaming about in the woods, rifle on his shoulders, or rowing out across the water of a large lake in quest of big fish. Although his family owned a cottage on a lake, he usually slept outside in a tent, the dim light of a kerosene lantern flickering long hours into the night over his temporary cot as he laid reading. 2.1.1 His Schooling: In June 1917, Hemingway graduated from Oak Park High School toward the bottom of his class. Meanwhile, war had broken out in Europe and, preferring fighting to college, he tried to get enlisted in the army but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Frustrated, he went away to live with an uncle in Kansas City where he found a job as a reporter in a newspaper. He liked his writing job, but he still had a compelling urge to get into the war, and the opportunity came soon afterwards. On learning that Italy was recruiting ambulance drivers to serve on the Italian front; he gave up his job and became an ambulance driver in Italy. 2.1.2 Injuries of War: Hemingway had been driving behind the lines for only a few days when he found that his work was too safe, in fact, dull. He wanted to serve on the frontlines in the thick of things. So he volunteered for canteen service and was soon riding a bicycle, handing out mail, tobacco, and chocolates to soldiers in the trenches. On his tenth day in Italy as he was handing a chocolate bar to a soldier, a large mortar shell fell near by. Hemingway was almost buried. His body was filled below the waist with over 250 pieces of shrapnel, but after regaining consciousness, he rescued a badly wounded Italian soldier and was turning to help others when he was hit again, with a machine-gun bullet, below the left knee. 2.1.3 Falls in Love with a Nurse: He spent several weeks in a Red Cross hospital and there he fell in love with an English Nurse Agnes. While in Europe, he received several medals for bravery, and then was sent home, limping on a cane. The Hemingway who went back to America was different person from the young man who had left. War, death, suffering, new people, a new language and love had all been crowded into a short period of time. 2.1.4 Disappointment in Love: While his feet and legs healed, he read a lot and impatiently watched the mail until, one day after receiving a letter, he suddenly became ill. He retired into seclusion and for days hardly left his room. Finally, on being repeatedly asked by his family, he revealed that the letter has came form Agnes informing him that she was not coming to America and that she had married an Italian army major. 2.1.5 Failure and Fame: Sad and disappointed, Hemingway went to Paris for study and to make a living by writing. There, he met and became friendly with some of the worlds greatest literary figures of that day- James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, and others. But despite their advice and help, he could not sell his literary attempts. Manuscript after manuscript kept coming back from editors, usually without a single word of encouragement, and with only a printed rejection slip. One day, he was sitting at a side walk cafà © on the Left Bank in Paris and complaining to a friend about his ill luck. The friend observed that perhaps the reason why Hemingways writings did not sell was that he had not suffered enough and that he did not know misery. Hemingway bitterly replied, â€Å"So I have not known misery! So thats what you think!† Then at first seemingly lost in memory, he narrated the story of his lost love, Agnes, the English nurse. He told his friend about the suffering he had endured in World W ar 1. Later, he put the story on paper in the form of a novel, A Farewell to Arms. The book proved to be immensely popular and Hemingway found himself famous. We could probably say that an unhappy love affair and his unhappy experiences in war were the motivating factor which made him being a great author. 2.1.6 Reporting in Spain: He went on writing and was now a successful and established writer. He traveled extensively, hunting in Africa and the Far East, fishing in numerous oceans and seas. He felt greatly attracted by bull-fighting in Spain and spent several years in that country. He covered the Spanish Civil War for American newspapers and could not resist getting into the fight in Madrid. By then, he was known as â€Å"Papa†, a bearded huge figure of a man who joked and swore with the best of the soldiers. 2.1.7 World War II: When World War II began, Hemingway, then living in Cuba, armed his own boat as a submarine chaser and patrolled the Atlantic Coast off the United States. But in 1942, he was in the thick of battle again as a magazine correspondent. He flew from England on bombing missions and became an expert on German rockets. Near the end of the war, he was among the first wave of troops to storm the Normandy beach in 1944. After the war, he retired to Cuba to fish and write. One book proved a failure, and his critics remarked that Papas carrier was over. 2.1.8 The Nobel Prize: Then, in 1952, after years of work, he brought out The Old Man and the Sea, a tale of the struggle of a single, old fisherman against the powers of fate and the ocean. It was the story he had been trying to write all his life, and it brought him the Pulitzer Prize for 1953. In the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Suffering from injuries in plane crashes while hunting wild game in Africa, Hemingway could not go to Sweden to receive the Nobel Prize but in a letter to the Academy he declared that the writers life was a lonely one, and that if he shed his loneliness, his work would deteriorate. Still living in Cuba, Hemingway continued writing short stories, novels, and magazine articles. But he also began to take life easier, spending more time on his fishing boat with his wife, whom he called Miss Mary. â€Å"No one can work everyday in these hot months without going stale,† he wrote during this period. â€Å"To break up the pattern of work, we fish the Gulf Stream in the spring and summer months and in the fall. 2.1.9 A Life of Adventure: Hemingways sixty-two years were packed with excitement. Living through adventure after adventure, he told stories of his life and love on jungles, the two World Wars in which he played a part in Europe, and a giant 1000-pound fish he battled off the Coast of Cuba. But his writing was more than just adventure stories; he helped to set the style for the modern novel. His lean, muscular prose and dramatic plots have, perhaps, been copied more than any other modern authors and his work has been translated into all the worlds major languages. 2.1.10 Ill Health and Suicide: But Hemingway was growing old. His hair and beard had turned white. His old wounds were bothering him. He had to keep standing while writing, and he was frequently unwell. Then Castro took over in Cuba, and Hemingway and Miss Mary returned to America, living in Idaho. He spent a few months in hospitals, began losing weight, and saw his creative ability declining. Early one morning on July 1961, he slipped on the stairs in his home and, not wishing to prolong his suffering, killed himself with a gun. Perhaps he had concluded, like the old fisherman in his novel, that he had no luck anymore. 2.2 His Works: Influenced by Ezra Pound and particularly by Gertrude Stein whose style strongly affected him, Hemingway published Three Stories and Ten Poems in 1923 and In Our Time (a collection of short stories) in 1925. These early stories exhibited the attitude of mind and technique for which Hemingway later became famous. As the leading spokesman for the â€Å"lost generation†, he expressed the feelings of war-wounded people disillusioned by the loss of faith and hope, and so thoroughly defeated by the collapse of former values that they could turn only to a stoic acceptance of primal emotions. The stories are mainly concerned with â€Å"tough† people, both intelligent men and women who have dropped into an exhausted cynicism or such primitives as frontiers-men, I Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry 1.1 Introduction: When World War1 broke out in 1914, it ended almost 100 years of relative peace in Europe. America at that time adopted a policy of neutrality and isolation regarding war. This approach was fully supported by the people of America at that time but later, in 1917 the German submarines entered the US marine territories against which the US government finally had to break the ice. So, as a reaction to German invasion America finally launched a counter attack and consequently the whole nation plunged into the great World War1. Unaware of the consequences America unwillingly had to participate in the greatest holocaust of the world known as the World War1. America would never have become a part of World War1 and have stuck to its neutral policy but the German submarines defied the US marine laws and entered the US territories on January 9th, 1917. Woodrow Wilson the US president at that time finally asked congress to declare war on Germany and it was April 2nd, 1917. As a result of this legitimate order America joined the war along with the other Allies. On the other hand the continent of Europe was under the attack of war where World War1 rose like a wall of blood red mountains. Despite having massive military and great weapons war killed ten million Europeans, most of them were young soldiers, nurses and subjects and all became the victims of ultimate death brought by heavy war weapons, flying jets and bullets swimming in the air. It was deaths command everywhere and when death comes to its empire it kills all what it finds. Similar was the situation in America where men, women and children all were on the mercy of a single bullet. Four million American soldiers were killed in war and almost equal number of civilians got killed and injured men, women and children left homeless due to the great wreckage all around with the spread of epidemic disease that resulted in the cause of further deaths of many civilians. It was a chaotic situation after the war ended in 1919. People were completely disillusioned and stunned by the aftermaths of the World War1. They were hopeless and unaware of their futures. The basic matrix of life was completely dissolved by the cruel war and human civilization became a victim of demolition. People lost their faith in basic norms and values of life as war took away with it their hopes, happiness and loved ones too. They seemed completely lost with having no basic aim behind being alive. Young men and women of America started living like herds of sheep and were spending life just for the sake of killing time. Eventually the war ended but it left behind its impact on the mind of masses and its terror got stored into the minds of the post-war generations. People became mentally sick and even after the war was over they felt its aftershocks later on in their lives. World War1 was the greatest trauma of the lives of a great number of Americans who survived the brutal attack of the war. The post-war American race became a victim of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and other mental disorders which were the result of the shocks given by the World War1. PTSD is a severe kind of state of mind after a great shock or accident that leads a human being to become a patient of insomnia and several other mental retardations. Almost each community and every class in Americas post-war society became a victim of PTSD which became a cause of disbelief and disgracing of the traditional life style on part of American generation. Watching all the above mentioned events and incidents in the midst of the battle fields and among the victims of the World War1 was present Ernest Hemingway, an American Red Cross ambulance driver who witnessed and used all these war events and post-war condition of the society as a backdrop of his literary works. Hemingway represented the American society and a post-war perturbed American generation which is known as the Lost Generation of America. Hemingway being a spokesman of the lost generation, masterly managed to give a unique account of events and incidents that took place in the war and changed the lives of millions of Americans. Hemingways main concern was the American society and its members who were suffering from a post-war disturbed psychological state of mind. Aiken (1926) writes in his essay as edited by Meyers (1982) as follows: The half dozen characters, all of whom belong to the curious and sad little world of disillusioned and aimless expatriates who make what home they can in the cafes of Paris, are seen perfectly and unsentimentally by Mr. Hemingway and are put before us with a maximum of economy 1. (90) As we know wars have always been a cause of destruction, devastation and demolition on a great scale since the descent of mankind on earth. There is no doubt that wars shatter the matrix of human civilization and bring forth despair, death and disease for mankind. Surpassing all the previous wars, the great World-Wars dismantled the hopes, dreams and races on a large scale and nations falling victims of disillusionment, aimlessness and mental stress and physical disorders. One of the greatest diseases that damage the brain after a war is ‘Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, a severe state of human mind after a shock or a trauma. Durand and Barlow (2000) comment on PTSD as follows: In recent years we have heard a great deal about the severe and long-lasting emotional disorders that can occur after a variety of traumatic events. Perhaps the most impressive traumatic event is war, but emotional disorders also occur after physical assault (particularly rape), car accidents, natural catastrophes, or the sudden death of a loved one. The emotional disorder that follows a trauma is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 2. (131) Then I. Sarason and Sarason (2006) in their book on Abnormal Psychology comment: PTSD involves an extreme experience, such as war, a natural catastrophe (for instance an earthquake), a physical assault, or a serious car crash. The traumas range from those that are directly experienced (e.g., being threatened with death) to those that are witnessed (e.g., family member being threatened with death). The onset of the clinical condition in posttraumatic disorders varies from soon after the trauma to long after it has occurred. Most studies have found higher rates among women than men. The prevalence of PTSD in the general population is about 0.5% in men and 1.2% in women (Andreasen and Black, 2001). Because life today is considered to be high in trauma for the population in general, it is estimated that Americans currently have a 5 to 10% chance of developing PTSD at sometime during their lifetimes. The combination of vulnerability factors and exposures earlier in life to traumatic experiences increases the likelihood of PTSD. For instance, having been abused as a ch ild or have had other previous traumatic experiences increases the risk for PTSD, especially for individuals who generally have emotional difficulties, such as anxiety and depression 3. (256) Now keeping in mind the American society which is the sole area of our research, we found the reason behind PTSD in American society and the characters introduced to us by Ernest Hemingway in his works. And that reason was the First World War and its aftermath. The lives of millions of people were badly influenced by World War I in America and in Europe as well. The great holocaust changed the whole concept of life by destroying the basic norms and traditional beliefs in all parts of the world. Priestley (1962) comments on World War I as follows: In the very middle of this age the First World War rises like a wall of blood-red mountains. Its frenzied butchery, indefensible even on a military basis, killed at least ten million Europeans, mostly young and free from obvious physical defects. After being dressed in uniform, fed and drilled, cheered and cried over before they were packed into their cattle-trunks, these ten million were then filled with hot lead, ripped apart by shell splinters, blown to bits, bayoneted in the belly, choked with poison gas, suffocated in mud, trampled to death or drowned, buried in collapsing dugouts, dropped out of burning aero planes, or allowed to die of diseases, after rotting to long in trenches that they shared with syphilitic rats and typhus-infested lice. Death, having come into his empire, demands the best, and got it 4. (321) Almost all the works of Ernest Hemingway are a result of his first-hand experience of war and his staunch observation of life around him. Most of his works prove to be autobiographical in nature and Cooperman (1964) comments on autobiographical nature of Hemingways works as follows: Three elements in Hemingways life shaped many of his attitudes, and indeed shaped much of his works: the fact that in World War I, he suffered a painful and terrible mortar wound, which made him conscious of the dread possibilities of the loss of manhood; the fact that his father committed suicide; and the fact of his growing old†¦ and the fears created by old age itself. Similar to Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms, Jake Barnes in The Sun Also Rises, and Santiago in The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway was afflicted with the fear of letting go and the fear of thinking. The nightmare of chaos, of passivity, loss of will, loss of initiative, loss of masculine role was a terrible nightmare, and one to be avoided at all costs 5. (85-92) It has already been observed that all the Hemingway fiction comes from his war experiences and the aftermath of the war. Many critics have commented on this experience-based technique of Ernest Hemingway. According to Putnam (2006), Tobias Wolff at the Hemingway centennial celebration said, â€Å"Hemingways great war work deals with aftermath. It deals with what happens to the soul in war and how people deal with that afterward.† Putnam (2006) further comments: No American writer is more associated with writing about war in the early 20th century than Ernest Hemingway. He experienced it firsthand, wrote dispatches from innumerable frontlines, and used war as a backdrop for many of his most memorable works 6. Ernest Hemingway is best known as the representative of the â€Å"Lost Generation† of America. He as an artist and writer of literature selected characters from the post-war American society as he was himself a member of that society and he observed it staunchly. Most of his works are based on his personal experience of the society and that is why he is often himself present in his novels as a leading character. Asselineau (1980) comments on Hemingways fiction as follows: It was indeed a â€Å"lost generation† in more senses than one. Yet, Hemingway among others survived the Great War for over forty years and, after appearing as the cynical and disillusioned Byron of twentieth century, ultimately turned into a new â€Å"teacher of athletes† and a â€Å"professeur d energie† a la Barres. A rather surprising change and a very spectacular recovery, which we can follow step by step in his works, since his novels make up an interminable Bildungsroman whose hero is always himself 7. While going through the works of Ernest Hemingway one realizes that Hemingway has very skillfully managed to present before us a group of expatriates who had left their homeland America after getting disillusioned by the war and were living as useless people in different parts of Europe under a special code of life. Asselineau (1980) comments as follows: All the veterans of foreign wars who appeared in Hemingways fiction are united by a common belief in an unwritten code. They are morally and physically very tough. They can take it. They keep a stiff upper lip. They grin and bear it. They refuse to discuss their own emotion and despise loquacious swaggerers like Robert Cohn. They hate gushing. They believe in self control and self imposed discipline. They have reached true wisdom in the etymological meaning of the word â€Å"wisdom†. They are those who know- who know that they are mortal and that sooner or later life ends in death. They know that man- whatever he does- will sooner or later be crushed by the hostile forces which surround him and is bound to be defeated- defeated, but not vanquished, for, like Pascal, they believe in the dignity of man, â€Å"a mere reed, and the weakest that can be found on earth, but even when the universe crushes him, man is still nobler than what kills him, for he knows that he is dying, wh ile the advantage that the universe has over him, the universe is unaware of it.† 8 (1844) High (1986) has also commented on the lost generation as follows: Man young people the post-World War 1 period had â€Å"lost† their American ideals. At the same time America â€Å"lost† many fine young writers- like e.e. cummings and Hemingway- because they had moved to Paris. Fitz Geralds first novel, This Side of Paradise (1920), describes this new generation. They had â€Å"grown up to find all gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.† Two concerns now filled their lives: â€Å"the fear of poverty and the worship of success.† 9 (143) Hemingways The Sun Also Rises proves to be the best of his works and it was also his first proper novel on lost generation of America. The novel stands as a monument over which the whole drama of the lost generation of America has been carved. It was Gertrude Stein the American authoress and Hemingways mentor who for the very first time told E. Hemingway: â€Å"You are all a lost generation.† Hemingway was struck by the comment and used it as an epigraph and also the theme of his first novel, Fiesta (called The Sun Also Rises in US. Ousby (1979) in his essay The Lost Generation comments as follows: Today the ‘lost Generation has come to seem an over-worked catchphrase. Used indiscriminately in its own era, the title has been claimed by successive generations of writers and applied retrospectively to earlier schools, such as the American naturalists. Yet the term remains useful in discussing the novelists of 1920s, if only because epitomizes the way they liked to see themselves. 10 (205) Ousby (1979) further explains the characteristics of the writers of lost generation in following words: Their unique and common experience was a disillusion bred by the First World War. They returned from that conflict to a society whose values seemed hollow and artificial by comparison with the harsh realities of the battle-field. Their alienation from America often took the form of exile and expatriation: Hemingway and Dos Passos spent most of their early adult lives in Europe, while Scott Fitzgerald and Thomas Wolfe were frequent visitors. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that Paris became the extra-parliamentary centre of American culture in 1920s. It was the shrine to which most ambitious young writers of the era made their pilgrimage. 11 (206) Ousby (1979) in the same essay tells us the factors which affected the writings of the writers of lost generation in the following words: Disillusioned with society in general and America in particular, the novelists of the Lost Generation cultivated a romantic self-absorption- a deliberate retreat into private emotion. They became precocious experts in tragedy, suffering and anguish. The early novels of Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald are peopled by sad, bitter young men who have lost all illusions at an early age; Amory Blaine of This Side of Paradise and Jake Barnes of Fiesta are the prime examples. They are haunted by war memories and by images of violence, cynical about idealism in any form, and given to only the most cryptic and laconic expressions of feeling. 12 (206) Ousby (1979) also comments on the characters introduced to us by the writers of lost generation as follows: The characters of Lost Generation novels live in restless pursuit of excitement and pleasure. Their Europe is not the gallery of cultural objects found in Hawthornes and Jamess fiction: it is a Europe of elegant restaurants, picturesque bars and intriguing local customs. They delight in kicking over the conventional traces (and in the resultant cries of middle- class horror), indulging in heavy drinking and casual sex. 13 (207) It was only Ernest Hemingway, who among the most famous writers of lost generation of America has been able to won the title of the avant-garde writer of the lost generation. His novel The Sun Also Rises was recommended all over the world as a true story featuring real people from the lost generation. This novel also made Hemingway a world-known celebrity. Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments: This book made him, almost instantly, an international celebrity identified with an entire generation, torn by war and grieving throughout the Roaring Twenties for their lost romantic idealism. Although he was somewhat ill-suited for the role, because he was a hard-working young writer with a wife and a son to support, he came to be regarded as the spokesman for American expatriates, those disillusioned and disaffected artists, writers, and intellectuals who spent the decade on the Left Bank in Paris. 14 (87) In his novel The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses Jake as a puppet, a narrator and also his famous code hero. Jake narrates the whole story which Hemingways eye saw sincerely. Nagel (1996) again in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on the character of Jake Barnes as follows: He is certainly one of the most isolated and vulnerable figures in American literature, and he narrates out of his disillusionment and pain, his grief evident throughout. As he says about himself, all he wants is to figure out how he can live in the world. It would seem that telling what happened is part of the process of learning how to live in the special circumstances of his world. 15 (90) Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on Jake being a representative of lost generation in following words: Hemingway humanized this dichotomy in the character of Jake Barnes by creating a man who bears the wounds of the war in a profoundly personal way yet combines his disillusionment with traditional American values of hard work and just compensation. It is surely an oversimplification to see Jake as an uncompromised representative of lost generation radicalism, for he exhibits much of the midwestern values he sometimes satirizes†¦ Above all, it is his judgment that provides the normative sensibility for assessing the people and events of the novel. But to grasp the meaning of what he relates, it is essential to understand the psychological context in which he tells it. 16 (91) Lady Ashley Brett is another important character from the lost generation. She is pure nymphomaniac sort of a woman and is a true representative of the women of the early 20th century. According to Nagel (1996), â€Å"Brett is by no means the first representation of a sexually liberated, free-thinking woman in American literature but rather an embodiment of what became known as the â€Å"New Woman† in nineteenth-century fiction.† Nagel (1996) further says: Brett is not only a women but an extraordinary woman for the age, a point not clear unless she is considered in historical context. Form this perspective, the women in The Sun Also Rises might be regarded as more interesting then the men. The role of women in society had been changing with each decade for a century, always with a good deal of social conflict and ideological struggle. 17 (92) Keeping in mind the agony of Jake due to his relation with Brett, we may easily nominate him as the most suffering person in the novel. His love with Brett makes him feel the pain of his wound which he got during the war, because he could not physically fulfill what he felt. According to Nagel (1996): From the beginning, the world is out of sexual order, the social evening is a parody of erotic potential, and the deeper irony is that this pathology is at the very heart of Jake and Bretts relationship. Their conversation in the taxi reveals the central problem of the novel: that they one another, that they feel that there is nothing they can do about it, that it is painful and destructive for them to be together. Whatever else happens is driven by this fact, and it is impossible for them to change it. The central dilemma for Jake is whether he can change the situation by finding some satisfaction in life. The problem for Brett is that she needs companionship of a man, and no one but Jake can offer her much beyond fleeting sexual pleasure. 18 (94) Jake truly deserves pity because he is the one who lost the most he had during war and even afterwards. His love with Brett gives him nothing except pain and he is also unable to sleep at night due to the agony brought by his love for Brett. Nagel (1996) comments: The â€Å"loss† in the â€Å"lost generation† is sustained primarily by him, and it makes for powerful fiction. The novel works, ultimately, because Jake, in anomalous circumstances, nevertheless presents a normative sensibility in the story he tells. He emerges as a man of intelligence, humor and good sense who lost more than he deserved in World War 1 but learned how to make a life for himself. 19 (105) According to Martin (1987): Jake Barnes and his friends- all of them- are a group because they share the same beliefs and experiences. Except for Robert Cohn, whose differences are less heinous than Jake sometimes thinks them to be, the displaced Americans and Britons are moving through a festival period in their lives, punctuating their aimless existence abroad with an organized visit to Spain for the bullfights. 20 (07) The characters introduced to us by Hemingway live under a peculiar but yet an extraordinary code of life. They behave like a community of people sharing similar set of thoughts and beliefs. Martin (1987) in her New Essays on The Sun Also Rises says: A key theme is the notion of community: These are people who understand each other, the rules they live by, and the reasons for their choices. Only someone outside that community will have difficulty with the social code. Count Mippipopolous may be a stranger to the group, but he understands the code and fits into the society. Robert Cohn, although he spends much time with the members of the group and thinks himself a special friend of both Jake and Brett, never manages to assimilate the rules. Jake, however, is clearly in charge- of the plans, the guest list, the activities, and the emotional nuance. He is the apparent hero of the novel, and his approval or disapproval sets the pattern for the other characters reaction to things. 20 (08) All the characters in the novel The Sun Also Rises seem dissatisfied and unhappy and most of the time they feel themselves useless. Martin (1987) comments on this condition of the characters in following words: There are many reasons for these characters unhappiness. To dwell on â€Å"irony and pity† is just a pastime; the real issues are the lack of alignment between profession and occupation, between lovers, between vacation and work, between ideals of Spain and France, between nature and the commercial. As full of disjunctures as a picture puzzle, The Sun Also Rises still presents a story whole, its fragments necessarily scattered throughout the narrative, and readers accept the fragmentation as one the marks of Hemingways truth. They seize on the purity of Pedro Romero, the wit of the bemused Mike Campbell, the taciturn acceptances of Jake Barnes, the flip bravado of Brett Ashley as the symbols of the characters who survive the onslaught of real life. 21 (16) Chapter 2 Life and Works of Ernest Hemingway 2.1 Birth and Parentage: Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21st, 1899. His father was a doctor. He spent much of his time in his early days roaming about in the woods, rifle on his shoulders, or rowing out across the water of a large lake in quest of big fish. Although his family owned a cottage on a lake, he usually slept outside in a tent, the dim light of a kerosene lantern flickering long hours into the night over his temporary cot as he laid reading. 2.1.1 His Schooling: In June 1917, Hemingway graduated from Oak Park High School toward the bottom of his class. Meanwhile, war had broken out in Europe and, preferring fighting to college, he tried to get enlisted in the army but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Frustrated, he went away to live with an uncle in Kansas City where he found a job as a reporter in a newspaper. He liked his writing job, but he still had a compelling urge to get into the war, and the opportunity came soon afterwards. On learning that Italy was recruiting ambulance drivers to serve on the Italian front; he gave up his job and became an ambulance driver in Italy. 2.1.2 Injuries of War: Hemingway had been driving behind the lines for only a few days when he found that his work was too safe, in fact, dull. He wanted to serve on the frontlines in the thick of things. So he volunteered for canteen service and was soon riding a bicycle, handing out mail, tobacco, and chocolates to soldiers in the trenches. On his tenth day in Italy as he was handing a chocolate bar to a soldier, a large mortar shell fell near by. Hemingway was almost buried. His body was filled below the waist with over 250 pieces of shrapnel, but after regaining consciousness, he rescued a badly wounded Italian soldier and was turning to help others when he was hit again, with a machine-gun bullet, below the left knee. 2.1.3 Falls in Love with a Nurse: He spent several weeks in a Red Cross hospital and there he fell in love with an English Nurse Agnes. While in Europe, he received several medals for bravery, and then was sent home, limping on a cane. The Hemingway who went back to America was different person from the young man who had left. War, death, suffering, new people, a new language and love had all been crowded into a short period of time. 2.1.4 Disappointment in Love: While his feet and legs healed, he read a lot and impatiently watched the mail until, one day after receiving a letter, he suddenly became ill. He retired into seclusion and for days hardly left his room. Finally, on being repeatedly asked by his family, he revealed that the letter has came form Agnes informing him that she was not coming to America and that she had married an Italian army major. 2.1.5 Failure and Fame: Sad and disappointed, Hemingway went to Paris for study and to make a living by writing. There, he met and became friendly with some of the worlds greatest literary figures of that day- James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, and others. But despite their advice and help, he could not sell his literary attempts. Manuscript after manuscript kept coming back from editors, usually without a single word of encouragement, and with only a printed rejection slip. One day, he was sitting at a side walk cafà © on the Left Bank in Paris and complaining to a friend about his ill luck. The friend observed that perhaps the reason why Hemingways writings did not sell was that he had not suffered enough and that he did not know misery. Hemingway bitterly replied, â€Å"So I have not known misery! So thats what you think!† Then at first seemingly lost in memory, he narrated the story of his lost love, Agnes, the English nurse. He told his friend about the suffering he had endured in World W ar 1. Later, he put the story on paper in the form of a novel, A Farewell to Arms. The book proved to be immensely popular and Hemingway found himself famous. We could probably say that an unhappy love affair and his unhappy experiences in war were the motivating factor which made him being a great author. 2.1.6 Reporting in Spain: He went on writing and was now a successful and established writer. He traveled extensively, hunting in Africa and the Far East, fishing in numerous oceans and seas. He felt greatly attracted by bull-fighting in Spain and spent several years in that country. He covered the Spanish Civil War for American newspapers and could not resist getting into the fight in Madrid. By then, he was known as â€Å"Papa†, a bearded huge figure of a man who joked and swore with the best of the soldiers. 2.1.7 World War II: When World War II began, Hemingway, then living in Cuba, armed his own boat as a submarine chaser and patrolled the Atlantic Coast off the United States. But in 1942, he was in the thick of battle again as a magazine correspondent. He flew from England on bombing missions and became an expert on German rockets. Near the end of the war, he was among the first wave of troops to storm the Normandy beach in 1944. After the war, he retired to Cuba to fish and write. One book proved a failure, and his critics remarked that Papas carrier was over. 2.1.8 The Nobel Prize: Then, in 1952, after years of work, he brought out The Old Man and the Sea, a tale of the struggle of a single, old fisherman against the powers of fate and the ocean. It was the story he had been trying to write all his life, and it brought him the Pulitzer Prize for 1953. In the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Suffering from injuries in plane crashes while hunting wild game in Africa, Hemingway could not go to Sweden to receive the Nobel Prize but in a letter to the Academy he declared that the writers life was a lonely one, and that if he shed his loneliness, his work would deteriorate. Still living in Cuba, Hemingway continued writing short stories, novels, and magazine articles. But he also began to take life easier, spending more time on his fishing boat with his wife, whom he called Miss Mary. â€Å"No one can work everyday in these hot months without going stale,† he wrote during this period. â€Å"To break up the pattern of work, we fish the Gulf Stream in the spring and summer months and in the fall. 2.1.9 A Life of Adventure: Hemingways sixty-two years were packed with excitement. Living through adventure after adventure, he told stories of his life and love on jungles, the two World Wars in which he played a part in Europe, and a giant 1000-pound fish he battled off the Coast of Cuba. But his writing was more than just adventure stories; he helped to set the style for the modern novel. His lean, muscular prose and dramatic plots have, perhaps, been copied more than any other modern authors and his work has been translated into all the worlds major languages. 2.1.10 Ill Health and Suicide: But Hemingway was growing old. His hair and beard had turned white. His old wounds were bothering him. He had to keep standing while writing, and he was frequently unwell. Then Castro took over in Cuba, and Hemingway and Miss Mary returned to America, living in Idaho. He spent a few months in hospitals, began losing weight, and saw his creative ability declining. Early one morning on July 1961, he slipped on the stairs in his home and, not wishing to prolong his suffering, killed himself with a gun. Perhaps he had concluded, like the old fisherman in his novel, that he had no luck anymore. 2.2 His Works: Influenced by Ezra Pound and particularly by Gertrude Stein whose style strongly affected him, Hemingway published Three Stories and Ten Poems in 1923 and In Our Time (a collection of short stories) in 1925. These early stories exhibited the attitude of mind and technique for which Hemingway later became famous. As the leading spokesman for the â€Å"lost generation†, he expressed the feelings of war-wounded people disillusioned by the loss of faith and hope, and so thoroughly defeated by the collapse of former values that they could turn only to a stoic acceptance of primal emotions. The stories are mainly concerned with â€Å"tough† people, both intelligent men and women who have dropped into an exhausted cynicism or such primitives as frontiers-men, I